{"id":41,"date":"2023-09-14T18:54:15","date_gmt":"2023-09-14T22:54:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/openbooks.macewan.ca\/researchmethods\/?post_type=chapter&p=41"},"modified":"2025-07-24T16:49:59","modified_gmt":"2025-07-24T20:49:59","slug":"chapter-2-the-importance-of-theory-and-literature","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/openbooks.macewan.ca\/researchmethods\/chapter\/chapter-2-the-importance-of-theory-and-literature\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 2: The Importance of Theory and Literature","rendered":"Chapter 2: The Importance of Theory and Literature"},"content":{"raw":"

There is nothing more practical than a good theory. <\/em><\/p>\r\n

\u2014 Kurt Lewin, 1951, p. 169<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

\r\n\r\nAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:\r\n
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  1. Outline the main assumptions of positivist, interpretive, critical, and pragmatic paradigms.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Explain why decolonization is necessary for learning about Indigenous knowledges.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Define and differentiate between theoretical frameworks and theories.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning and explain how the role of theory differs in qualitative and quantitative research.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Formulate social research questions.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Explain the importance of a literature review.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Locate appropriate literature and evaluate sources of information found on the internet.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    INTRODUCTION<\/h2>\r\nIn chapter 1, you were introduced to scientific reasoning as a desirable alternative to learning about the social world through tradition, common sense, authority, and personal experience. In addition, you learned to distinguish between basic and applied research and that research methods are used to collect data for a variety of purposes (e.g., to explore, describe, explain, or evaluate some phenomenon). In this chapter, you will learn about paradigms that shape our views of social research and alternative worldviews in the form of Indigenous knowledges. You will learn about theoretical frameworks and the importance of theory and prior research for informing the development of new research. Finally, this chapter helps you locate and evaluate sources of information you find in the library and on the internet.\r\n

    INQUIRY PARADIGMS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES<\/h2>\r\nAt the most general level, a [pb_glossary id=\"460\"]paradigm[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a set of \u201cbasic beliefs\u201d or a \u201cworldview\u201d that helps us make sense of the world, including our own place in it (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Earl Babbie and Jason Edgerton (2024) define a paradigm as \u201ca theoretical perspective including a set of assumptions about reality that guide research questions\u201d (Some Social Science Paradigms section). As a broad framework, a paradigm includes assumptions about the nature of knowledge (a branch of philosophy called epistemology), assumptions about the nature of reality or the way things are (a branch of philosophy called ontology), and assumptions about how we go about solving problems and gathering information (a system of principles or practices collectively known as methodology). The assumptions are interrelated in the sense that how one views the nature of reality (an ontological stance) influences beliefs about one\u2019s relationship to that reality (an epistemological stance) and how one would go about examining that reality (a methodological stance) (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). This will become clearer as we compare the assumptions of four distinct and competing inquiry paradigms.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1292\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1920\"]\"Paradigm Image 2.1 Research findings may alter shared worldviews, bringing about what philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn (1962) termed a \u201cparadigm shift.\u201d[\/caption]\r\n

    Positivist Paradigm<\/h3>\r\nFrench philosopher Auguste Comte (1798\u20131857) first used the term social physics<\/em> (later called sociology<\/em>) to describe a positivist science of society that could teach us about the social world through research and theorizing (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2021). <\/em>The [pb_glossary id=\"476\"]positivist paradigm[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> is a belief system aimed at discovering universal laws based on the assumption that a singular reality exists independent of individuals and their role in it. Positivism rests on a worldview like that of the natural sciences, which stresses objectivity and truth as discovered through direct empirical methods. In its most extreme form, positivism will accept as knowledge-only events that can verified through sensory experience (Bell et al., 2022). The goal of positivism is to explain events and relationships via a search for antecedent causes that produce outcomes. Within a positivist paradigm, the search for empirical truth begins with what is already known about an area. From that starting point, probable causes are \u201cdeduced\u201d using logical reasoning, and then theories are tested for accuracy. Systematic observation and experimental methods are commonly employed modes of inquiry and the data obtained is quantifiable.\r\n

    Interpretive Paradigm<\/h3>\r\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"396\"]interpretive paradigm[\/pb_glossary] <\/strong>(also called constructivism) arose in part as a critique of positivism for its failure to recognize the importance of subjectivity in human-centred approaches. The interpretive paradigm worldview rests on the assumption that reality is socially constructed in the form of mental representations created and recreated by people through their experiences and interactions in social contexts (Lincoln et al., 2024). As such, \u201cmultiple realities exist\u201d for any given individual (Guba, 1996), and these individual realities are largely \u201cself-created\u201d (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The focus of the interpretive paradigm is on understanding individuals\u2019 perceptions of reality, including how events and interactions come to have meaning for them, rather than identifying objective phenomena or social facts that exist outside of individuals and relationships. This generally necessitates a qualitative research strategy, such as ethnography, which brings the researcher into close contact with those being studied for prolonged periods of time; as a result, relationships develop and insight is gained from within those relationships. As Palys and Atchison (2014) put it, \u201cgood theory is not imposed; rather, it emerges from direct observation and contact with people in context\u201d (p. 23).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2453\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"Couple<\/a> Image 2.2 The interpretive paradigm emphasizes the constructed nature of reality for individuals.[\/caption]\r\n

    Critical Paradigm<\/h3>\r\nAnother worldview that emphasizes interpretation and understanding is the [pb_glossary id=\"267\"]critical paradigm[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. The critical paradigm rests on an assumption that \u201chuman nature operates in a world that is based on a struggle for power\u201d (Lincoln et al., 2024, p. 81). The critical paradigm focuses specifically on determining the role power plays in the creation of knowledge, frequently using qualitative strategies. The critical approach is more of a critique concerning how and why particular views become the dominant ones and how privilege and oppression interact, often as the result of defining characteristics such as gender, race and ethnicity, and social class (Lincoln et al., 2024). Beyond examining inequality, there is also an emphasis on \u201cpraxis,\u201d whereby scholars provide knowledge that can help to end powerlessness (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022). To the extent that research can identify ways in which groups are disadvantaged and identify the causes of subordination, it can also be used to help resolve the inequities. Various theoretical perspectives and theories stem from a critical-interpretative stance including feminist inquiry, critical race theory, critical disabilities studies, and queer theory.[footnote]For more information on feminist inquiry, critical race theory, critical disabilities studies, and queer theory , refer to The Sage handbook of qualitative research<\/a><\/em> (6th ed.) (2024), edited by Norman K. Denzin, Yvonna S. Lincoln, Michael D. Giardina, and Gaile S. Cannella.[\/footnote]\r\n

    Pragmatic Paradigm<\/h3>\r\nFinally, in contrast to the dichotomy between the objectivity of positivism and the subjectivity of interpretive approaches, an impartial outlook is offered by a more recent paradigm called the [pb_glossary id=\"478\"]pragmatic paradigm[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. The pragmatic view \u201carises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions\u201d and is concerned with \"applications\u2014what works\u2014and solutions to problems\" (Creswell & Creswell, 2023, p. 11). This problem-centred worldview is not based in any philosophy, nor does it necessitate the use of a certain form of reasoning or research technique. It does, however, emphasize the importance of methodology for solving problems and advocates for the use of combined qualitative and quantitative approaches for a more complete understanding. Historically, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches has proven problematic given the opposing assumptions upon which each approach is based. The pragmatic paradigm offers a solution to the dichotomy. As John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell (2023) note, \u201cpragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed methods researchers look to many approaches for collecting and analyzing data rather than subscribing to any one way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative)\u201d (p. 12). Thus, the starting point is the issue or research problem, which itself suggests the most applicable means for further research exploration. Mixed method approaches to research that are grounded in a pragmatic paradigm are discussed in more detail in chapter 11.<\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1069\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"Figure<\/a> Figure 2.1 Comparison of Inquiry Paradigms in the Social Sciences [Image description - See Appendix C Figure 2.1<\/a>][\/caption]\r\n
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    Test Yourself<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

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