{"id":5,"date":"2023-09-14T15:37:15","date_gmt":"2023-09-14T19:37:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/openbooks.macewan.ca\/researchmethods\/?p=5"},"modified":"2024-09-13T11:28:33","modified_gmt":"2024-09-13T15:28:33","slug":"chapter-1-research-foundations","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/openbooks.macewan.ca\/researchmethods\/chapter\/chapter-1-research-foundations\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 1: Research Foundations","rendered":"Chapter 1: Research Foundations"},"content":{"raw":"

The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science.<\/em><\/p>\r\n

\u2014 Albert Einstein[footnote]Opening quote retrieved from Goodreads.com<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n

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Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

\r\n\r\nAfter reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:\r\n
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  1. Explain why it is important to learn about social research methods.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Identify various \u201cways of knowing\u201d and note their limitations.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Recognize common errors in reasoning.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Define social research, distinguish between primary and secondary research, and differentiate between basic and applied research.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Explain the goals of research.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research methods.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    INTRODUCTION<\/h2>\r\nMany students enroll in an introduction to social research course only because the course is required for their program of study. Some dread the thought of having to read about and carry out academic research, and others worry about how they will perform in what they perceive is going to be a highly laborious and boring course. We know this because students routinely admit these reservations, and they also ask why they need to take such a course and what value the course will have for them in their everyday lives. Our response is this: Though you may be skeptical now, what you will learn about in this research methods book and in a methods course is interesting, and it has practical and relevant implications for you\u2014for understanding people and events around you, for earning a living, and especially for making informed choices. After taking a research methods course, one of the students wrote in the course evaluation, \u201cThis class should be the last one that anyone completing an undergraduate degree takes \u2026 the skills learned and the knowledge acquired directly translate into the real world.\u201d\r\n\r\nResearch informs practice. Regardless of the career path you take, research has already played and continues to play an integral role in the proficiency of the skill set practiced within that occupation. For example, healthcare professionals such as family physicians, nurse care practitioners, and dentists rely upon best practices as identified by researchers in the discipline. Similarly, teachers base lesson plans on an established curriculum that is continually monitored and evaluated, peace officers interview eyewitnesses based on methods that are designed to maximize recall and minimize errors, social workers employ proven crisis-intervention strategies to assist families and individuals in need, and lawyers argue points based on their prior research into similar cases with specific outcomes. Moreover, successful businesses frequently invest in research to learn about existing customers, satisfaction with current products and services, and the potential for market growth (e.g., this is how Apple comes up with ideas for its newest iPhones).\r\n\r\nIn addition to describing people and processes, applied research also helps us evaluate whether the course of action we take is the most appropriate in a given circumstance, and it provides direction for how we might make improvements in the future. Summing up, research methodology can be best viewed as a practical means for acquiring relevant knowledge that is used to make informed decisions. As implied by Einstein\u2019s opening quote, anybody who is curious about people or events around them can be considered a potential social researcher. This book is specifically designed to help these individuals to use the most appropriate methods in their quest to find answers.\r\n
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    Research on the Net<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

    \r\n\r\nStatistics Canada<\/strong>\r\nOne of the leading sources for information on Canada and Canadians is Statistics Canada<\/a>. Statistics Canada, originally called the Dominion Bureau of Statistics, was established in 1918 as a federal government department that is mandated under the Statistics Act<\/em> (1985) to \u201ccollect, compile, analyze, abstract and publish statistical information relating to the commercial, industrial, financial, social, economic and general activities and conditions of the people\u201d (s 3). Here, various economists, mathematical statisticians, programmers, demographers, sociologists, senior methodologists, and others are employed in a realm of social research describing Canada and its people. For example, you can learn about the population and characteristics of Indigenous people; the health and well-being of children and youth; the economic viability of Canada\u2019s economy; the average annual income of families; trends in labour; energy supply and demand; and commuting patterns.\r\n\r\nOne of the most important functions of Statistics Canada is to generate research to help inform policy that is developed at the provincial and federal levels of government. The information collected about Canadian citizens, businesses, departments, and programs helps decision making involving the prioritization of issues, the allocation of funding, and the development of rules and strategies. This occurs through the analysis of economic performance, the shaping of trade negotiations, the monitoring of the effectiveness of the justice system, the assessment of program funding, the maintenance of education and healthcare policies, and other regulatory systems involving the government. For more information on Statistics Canada and its research-based career opportunities, visit Careers at Statistics Canada<\/a>.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_835\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"Statistics Image 1.1 Statistics Canada is the main federal government source for economic, social, and census data.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    WAYS OF KNOWING AND THEIR LIMITATIONS AS SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE<\/h2>\r\nEach one of us has accumulated knowledge based on ideas and events we have heard about, read about, witnessed, and\/or experienced that we use at different times to make choices. As you will discover, many of these ways of knowing have limitations that detract from our ability to make sound and informed choices.\r\n

    Tradition, Common Sense, and Authority<\/h3>\r\nOne of the earliest ways of knowing lies in [pb_glossary id=\"624\"]tradition[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u2014the compilation of beliefs and practices passed down from one generation to the next that everyone knows about and often adheres to, though rarely questions. Without delving into anyone\u2019s personal preferences or religious views about what marriage should or might entail, consider what our gendered tradition tells us about the main performers in wedding ceremonies in Western culture. We know, for example, that there is usually a bride and a groom who are part of a larger wedding party consisting of a maid of honour, a best man, bridesmaids, and groomsmen. Similarly, there are various well-established customs associated with weddings, including the groom asking the bride\u2019s father for permission to marry his daughter, the bride wearing a white dress, a bridal veil, a garter belt, and other articles that represent something old, something new, something borrowed, and something blue. Other common features include the exchange of wedding vows and the placing of wedding bands, the first kiss as a newlywed couple, the bouquet toss, the cutting of a wedding cake, the first dance as a couple, and the departure for a honeymoon. While tradition as a form of knowledge might be important for teaching religious doctrine or helping maintain certain cultural practices, it is often passed on and adhered to without a consideration of what the practices mean historically or even in the present-day context. For instance, it is unlikely that a modern groom seen tossing the bride\u2019s garter belt into a crowd on their wedding day would be trying to stave off a group intent on tearing at his bride\u2019s clothing. Instead, the couple is highly likely to be mindlessly observing the norms of tradition.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2347\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"Bride Image 1.2 Wedding couples continue to follow the norms of tradition.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAnother source of information is [pb_glossary id=\"220\"]common sense[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, which is a form of practical knowledge based on adaptive prior learning that can generalize to novel situations. Common sense is often relied upon to make sound judgments that will benefit us or that will help to keep us out of harm\u2019s way, often through recognition of our physical, emotional, and\/or cognitive limits. For example, one of the author's common sense tells her to opt for intermediate (or blue) down-hill ski runs over expert (black diamond) trails given her current abilities at this stage in life. And, if she felt out of control while skiing down an intermediate run, as might be the case if she picked up too much speed or slid on an icy patch and was thrown off course, she could again rely upon common sense to help guide her back to safety by perhaps seeking out deeper-looking snow that might provide some traction or by looking for ways to traverse across the mountain. Common sense also plays a role in the establishment and maintenance of intimate relationships, where a person might end a relationship with too many \u201cred flags\u201d or obstacles to overcome. Of course, our common sense might also be misguided, such as when we believe that \u201copposites attract for a reason\u201d and stay in an unfulfilling relationship. A limitation of common sense is that it doesn\u2019t articulate when and under what specific circumstances our generalized beliefs hold true. Sometimes opposing traits foster attraction in a partner; however, research shows that people who are alike (e.g., in looks and with respect to values) fare much better in relationships (Berscheid & Reis, 1998). Common sense may even provide false hope as we cling to the belief that \u201cabsence makes the heart grow fonder,\u201d while research indicates that long-distance relationships seldom work. Instead, proximity is the key antecedent in the establishment of relationships (Aronson et al., 2021).\r\n\r\nWe also learn new things through the teachings of [pb_glossary id=\"192\"]authority[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> figures or experts who share their knowledge and experience with us. Beginning with early socialization in our families of origin, we receive imparted wisdom from our parents and relatives, who teach us about the importance of eating well-balanced meals, of looking both ways before we cross the road, of respecting our teachers and peers, and of obeying the rule of law. Of course, the same authorities may pass on erroneous information and\/or model less appropriate forms of conduct, such as poor eating habits and disregard for the law. Beyond the family, we also obtain information from various credentialed professionals, academics, institutions, and organizations (e.g., a dentist who indicates root canal therapy is necessary, a political science professor who predicts provincial budget cuts, and Health Canada\u2019s food guidelines for healthy eating). Although many of the teachings offered by authority figures are helpful and even necessary to our well-being, we often fail to follow expert advice. For example, the World Health Organization (2023) informs us of the importance of eating vegetables and fruits to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer, while Canadians tend to opt instead for ultra-processed foods that are low in nutrition and high in fat, salt, and sugar (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022). In addition, some authority figures offer opinions on issues outside of their realm of expertise, as in the case of professional athletes who are paid to endorse viewpoints and products.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2349\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"Ham Image 1.3 Canadians often opt for ultra-processed foods over nutrient-rich fruits and vegetables.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFinally, we tend to over-rely on the mass media as a source of authority without questioning the legitimacy of the messages provided. The mass media is an authority for informing us about local and international events in the form of communications we receive in newspapers, on television, and especially over the internet. However, the media is also a profit-based business with highly concentrated ownership. For example, Bell Media owns the CTV Network and its affiliates, including 35 local channels and 26 specialty channels (e.g., RDS and TSN) (Bell Media, 2024b), and it is Canada\u2019s largest radio broadcaster, with 103 stations including Virgin Radio and Bounce Radio (Bell Media, 2024c). Quebecor Media is also a big contender, operating TVA Group consisting of Quebec\u2019s largest television network and North America's largest French-language TV broadcaster, book and magazine publishers, and film and sound recording interests (Quebecor, 2024). Media giants set the agenda, thereby determining what we are exposed to when we watch television, listen to music, or read the newspapers. Thus, it is important to critically assess the messages we are exposed to, as well as their originating sources.\r\n

    Experience<\/h3>\r\nLastly, much of what we believe we gain through first-hand [pb_glossary id=\"319\"]experience[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. You probably understand more about the complexities of single parenthood or divorce if this is something you personally have experienced. Similarly, if you are considering whether divorce is becoming increasingly common in Western culture, you may rely upon your own personal knowledge of couples who have divorced. While you may be able to recall several recent instances of divorce among friends, family members, and work associates, does this really provide evidence for a claim that divorce is becoming more common? It could be that you are better able to remember recent cases of divorce than ones that occurred much earlier on. It could also be that your friends are not representative of the general population (e.g., they may possess shared characteristics by association that put them at greater risk for divorce, such as being of an age wherein they are more likely to have young children, having fewer financial resources, or holding an occupation that is less conducive to a stable marriage or family life).\r\n<\/b>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_831\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"640\"]\"Cutting Image 1.4 Many understand the intricacies of divorce through first-hand experience.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n
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    Test Yourself<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

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