8.1 Leadership

Leadership is one of the most studied aspects of group communication. Scholars in business, communication, psychology, and many other fields have written extensively about leaders’ qualities, leadership theories, and how to build leadership skills. It is important to note that although a group may have only one official leader, other members play essential leadership roles. This distinction also helps us differentiate between leaders and leadership (Hargie, 2011).

Why and How People Become Leaders

Throughout history, some people have grown into, taken, or been given leadership positions. Many early leaders were believed to be divine in some way. In some Indigenous cultures, shamans are considered leaders because they are believed to be bridges that can connect the spiritual and physical realms. Many early kings, queens, and military leaders were said to be approved by a god to lead the people. Today, many leaders are elected or appointed to positions of power, but most have already accumulated much experience in leadership roles. Some leaders are well respected, some are feared, some are hated, and many elicit some combination of these reactions. This brief overview illustrates the centrality of leadership throughout human history, but it was not until the last 100 years that leadership became an object of systematic study.

Before moving onto specific approaches to studying leadership, let us distinguish between designated and emergent leaders. Some people gravitate more toward leadership roles than others; some leaders are designated, while others are emergent (Hargie, 2011). Designated leaders are officially recognized in their leadership role and may be appointed or elected by people inside or outside the group. Designated leaders can be incredibly successful when they are sought out by others to fulfill and accepted in leadership roles. On the other hand, some people seek out leadership positions not because they possess leadership skills and have been successful leaders but because they have the drive to hold and wield power. Many groups are initially leaderless and must either designate a leader or wait for one to emerge organically. Emergent leaders gain status and respect through engagement with the group and its task and are turned to by others as a resource when leadership is needed. Emergent leaders may play an important role when a designated leader unexpectedly leaves. This next section will focus on three common perspectives on why some people are more likely to be designated leaders than others and how leaders emerge in the absence of or in addition to a designated leader.

Leaders Emerge Because of Their Traits

The trait approach to studying leadership distinguishes leaders from followers based on traits or personal characteristics (Pavitt, 1999). Leaders generally share traits related to physical appearance, communication ability, intelligence, and personality (Cragan & Wright, 1991). Regarding physical appearance, designated leaders tend to be taller and more attractive than other group members. This could be because you may consciously and subconsciously associate a larger size (in height and build, but not body fat) with strength and strength with good leadership. Regarding communication abilities, leaders speak more fluently, have a more confident tone, and communicate more often than other group members. Leaders are also moderately more intelligent than other group members, which is attractive because leaders need good problem-solving skills. Interestingly, group members are not as likely to designate or recognize an emergent leader that they perceive to be exceedingly more intelligent than them. Last, leaders are usually more extroverted, assertive, and persistent than other group members. These personality traits help get these group members noticed by others, and expressivity is often seen as attractive and a sign of communication competence.

The trait approach to studying leaders has provided helpful information regarding how people view ideal leaders. Still, it has not provided much insight into why some people become and are more successful leaders than others. The list of ideal traits is not final because excellent leaders can have few, if any, of these traits, and poor leaders can possess many. Additionally, these traits are difficult to change or control without much time and effort. Because these traits are enduring, there is not much room for people to learn and develop leadership skills, which makes this approach less desirable for communication scholars who view leadership as a communication competence. Rather than viewing these traits as a guide for what to look for when choosing your next leader, view them as traits that are made meaningful through context and communication behaviours.

Leaders Emerge Because of the Situation

The emergent approach to studying leadership considers how leaders emerge in initially leaderless groups and how situational contexts affect this process (Pavitt, 1999). The situational context surrounding a group influences what type of leader is best. Situations may be highly structured, highly unstructured, or anywhere in between (Cragan & Wright, 1991). Leaders with a high task orientation are likely to emerge in highly structured contexts, such as a group that works to maintain a completely automated factory unit, and highly unstructured contexts, like a group responding to a crisis. Relational-oriented leaders are more likely to emerge in semistructured contexts that are less formal and in groups composed of people who have specific knowledge and are therefore trusted to do much of their work independently (Fiedler, 1967). For example, a group of local health and wellness business owners who form a group for professional networking would likely prefer a leader with a relational-oriented style since these group members are likely already leaders in their own right and, therefore, might resent a person who takes a rigid task-oriented style over a more collegial style.

Leaders emerge differently in different groups, but two stages are standard in each scenario (Bormann & Bormann, 1988). The first stage only covers a brief period, perhaps no longer than a portion of one meeting. During this first stage, about half of the group’s members are eliminated from the possibility of being the group’s leader.

Remember that this is an informal and implicit process — unlike people being picked for a kickball team or intentionally vetted. But some communicative behaviours influence who is cut from the next stage of informal leader consideration. People will likely be eliminated as leader candidates if they do not actively contribute to initial group interactions, if they contribute but communicate poorly, if they contribute but appear too rigid or inflexible in their beliefs, or if they seem uninformed about the task of the group.

The second stage of leader emergence is where a more or less pronounced struggle for leadership begins. In one scenario, a leader candidate picks up an ally in the group who acts as a supporter or lieutenant, reinforcing the ideas and contributions of the candidate. If there are no other leader candidates or the others fail to pick up a supporter, the candidate with the supporter will likely become the leader. In a second scenario, two leader candidates pick up supporters and are both qualified leaders. This leads to a more intense and potentially prolonged struggle that can be uncomfortable for other group members. Although the two leading candidates do not overtly fight with each other or say, “I should be the leader, not you!” they both take strong stances regarding the group’s purpose and try to influence the structure, procedures, and trajectory of the group. Group members not involved in this struggle may not know who to listen to, leading to low task and social cohesion and may cause a group to fail. Sometimes, one candidate-supporter team retreats, leaving a clear leader to step up. But the candidate who retreated will still enjoy a relatively high status in the group and be respected for vying for leadership. The second-place candidate may become a nuisance for the new emergent leader, questioning his or her decisions. Rather than excluding or punishing the second-place candidate, the new leader should give him or her responsibilities within the group to use the group member’s respected status.

Leaders Emerge Based on Communication Skills and Competence

Leaders also emerge based on their communication skills and competency.  This final approach to the study of leadership is considered functional because it focuses on how particular communication behaviours function to create leadership conditions. This last approach is the most useful for communication scholars and people who want to improve their leadership skills because leadership behaviours (which are learnable and adaptable) rather than traits or situations (which are often beyond our control) are the primary focus of study. You have learned that group members can exhibit leadership behaviours and are not just designated or emergent leaders. Therefore leadership behaviours are essential for all of us to understand, even if you do not anticipate serving in leadership positions (Cragan & Wright, 1991).

The communication behaviours that facilitate effective leadership encompass three main areas of group communication, including task, procedural, and relational functions. Although any group member can perform leadership behaviours, groups usually have patterns of expectations for behaviours once they reach the norming and performing stages of group development. Many groups only meet once or twice; in these cases, a designated leader will likely perform many of the functions to get the group started and then step in to facilitate as needed.

Leadership behaviours contributing to a group’s task-related functions include providing, seeking, and evaluating information. Leaders may want to be cautious about contributing ideas before soliciting ideas from group members since the leader’s contribution may sway or influence others in the group, diminishing the importance of varying perspectives. Likewise, a leader may want to solicit an evaluation of ideas from members before providing their judgment. In group situations where creativity is needed to generate ideas or solutions to a problem, the task leader may be wise to facilitate brainstorming and discussion.

This can allow the leader to keep their eye on the “big picture” and challenge group members to make their ideas more concrete or discuss their implications beyond the group without adding their opinion.

To review, some of the key leadership behaviours that contribute to the task-related functions of a group include the following (Cragan & Wright, 1991):

• contributing ideas
• seeking ideas
• evaluating ideas
• seeking idea evaluation
• visualizing abstract ideas
• generalizing from specific ideas

Leadership behaviours contributing to a group’s procedural-related functions help guide the group from idea generation to implementation. Some leaders are better at facilitating and managing ideas than managing a group’s administrative functions. So while a group leader may help establish the group’s goals and set the agenda, another group member with more experience in group operations may periodically revisit and assess progress toward the completion of goals and compare the group’s performance against its agenda. It’s also important to check in between idea-generating sessions to clarify, summarize, and gauge the agreement level of group members. A skilled and experienced leader may take primary responsibility for all these behaviours, but sharing them with group members is often beneficial to avoid being overburdened.

To review, some of the key leadership behaviours that contribute to the procedural functions of a group include the following (Cragan & Wright, 1991):

• Goal setting
• Agenda making
• Clarifying
• Summarizing
• Verbalizing consensus
• Generalizing from specific ideas

Leadership behaviours contributing to a group’s relational functions include creating a participative and inclusive climate, establishing norms of reflection and self-analysis, and managing conflict. By encouraging participation among group members, a leader can help quell people who try to monopolize the discussion and create an overall climate of openness and equality. Leaders want to make sure that people do not feel personally judged for their ideas and that criticism remains idea-centred, not person-centred. A safe and positive climate typically leads to higher-quality idea generation and decision-making. Leaders also encourage group members to metacommunication or talk about the group’s communication. This can help the group identify and address any interpersonal or communication issues before they escalate and divert the group from accomplishing its goal. A group with a well-established participative and inclusive climate will be better prepared to handle conflict when it emerges.

To review, some of the key leadership behaviours that contribute to the relational functions of a group include the following (Cragan & Wright, 1991):

• Regulating participation
• Climate making
• Instigating group self-analysis
• Resolving conflict
• Instigating productive conflict

Leadership Styles

Given a large amount of research on leadership, it is not surprising that several different ways to define or categorize leadership styles exist. Influential leaders generally do not fit solely into one style in the following classifications. Instead, they can adapt their leadership style to fit the relational and situational context (Wood, 1977). One common way to study leadership style is to distinguish between autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leaders (Lewin et al., 1939). These leadership styles can be described as follows:

• Autocratic leaders set policies and make decisions primarily on their own, taking advantage of the power present in their title or status to set the agenda for the group.
• Democratic leaders facilitate group discussion and like to take input from all members before making a decision.
• Laissez-faire leaders take a “hands-off” approach, preferring to give group members the freedom to reach and implement their own decisions.

While this is a frequently cited model of leadership styles, this section will focus more on a model developed a few years after this one. The four leadership styles used in this model are directive, participative, supportive, and achievement-oriented (House & Mitchell, 1974).

Directive Leaders

Directive leaders help provide psychological structure for their group members by clearly communicating expectations, keeping a schedule and agenda, providing specific guidance as group members work toward completing their tasks and taking the lead on setting and communicating group rules and procedures. Although similar to the autocratic leadership style mentioned before, it is more nuanced and flexible. The originators of this model note that a leader can be directive without being seen as authoritarian. To do this, directive leaders must be good motivators who encourage productivity through positive reinforcement or reward rather than through the threat of punishment.

A directive leadership style is effective in groups with no history and may require direction to start their task. It can also be the most appropriate method during crises when decisions must be made under time constraints or other extraordinary pressures. When groups have an established history and are composed of people with unique skills and expertise, a directive approach may be seen as “micromanaging.” In these groups, a more participative style may be the best option.

Participative Leaders

Participative leaders work to include group members in the decision-making process by soliciting and considering their opinions and suggestions. When group members feel included, their personal goals are more likely to align with the group and organization’s goals, which can help productivity. This leadership style can also aid in group member socialization, as the members feel like they help to establish group norms and rules, which affects cohesion and climate. When group members participate more, they buy into the group’s norms and goals more, which can increase conformity pressures for incoming group members. As you learned earlier, this is good, but it can become harmful when the pressures lead to unethical group member behaviour. In addition to consulting group members for help with decision-making, participative leaders also grant group members more freedom to work independently. This can make group members feel trusted and respected for their skills, increasing their effort and output.

The participative method of leadership is similar to the democratic style discussed earlier. It is a style of leadership practiced in many organizations that have established work groups that meet consistently over long periods.

Supportive Leaders

Supportive leaders show concern for their followers’ needs and emotions. They want to support group members’ welfare through a positive and friendly group climate. These leaders are good at reducing the stress and frustration of the group, which helps create a positive climate and can help increase group members’ positive feelings about the task and other group members.

A supportive leadership style is more likely in primarily relational rather than task-focused groups. For example, support groups and therapy groups benefit from a supportive leader. While maintaining positive relationships is an integral part of any group’s functioning, most task-oriented groups need to spend more time on tasks than on social functions to work toward the completion of their task efficiently. Skilled directive or participative leaders of task-oriented groups would be wise to employ supportive leadership behaviours when group members experience emotional stress to prevent relational stress from negatively impacting the group’s climate and cohesion.

Achievement-Oriented Leaders

Achievement-oriented leaders strive for excellence and set challenging goals, constantly seeking improvement and exhibiting confidence that group members can meet their high expectations. These leaders often engage in systematic social comparison, keeping tabs on other similar high-performing groups to assess their expectations and the group’s progress. This type of leadership is similar to what other scholars call transformational or visionary leadership and is often associated with leaders like former Apple CEO Steve Jobs, talk show host and television network CEO Oprah Winfrey, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, and business magnate turned philanthropist Warren Buffett. Achievement-oriented leaders are likely less common than other types, as this requires high skill and commitment for the leader and the group. Although rare, these leaders can be found at all levels of groups ranging from local school boards to Fortune 500 companies. Specific group dynamics must be in place to accommodate this leadership style. Groups for which an achievement-oriented leadership style would be effective are typically intentionally created and are made up of skilled and competent members regarding the group’s task. The leader is often chosen explicitly because of their reputation and expertise. Even though the group members may not have a history of working with the leader, the members and leader must have a high degree of mutual respect.

Leadership and Power

Leaders help move group members toward completing their goals using various motivational strategies. The types of power leaders draw on to motivate have long been a topic of small group study. A leader may possess or draw on the following five types of power to varying degrees: legitimate, expert, referent, information, and reward/coercive (French & Raven, 1959). Influential leaders do not need to possess all five types of power. Instead, competent leaders know how to draw on other group members who may be better able to exercise power in a given situation.

Legitimate Power

The very title of leader brings with it legitimate power, which is the power that flows from the officially recognized position, status, or title of a group member. For example, the leader of a healthcare authority receives legitimate power through their title. It is important to note that being designated as someone with status or a position of power does not mean that the group members respect or recognize that power. Even with a title, leaders must still be able to provide leadership. Of the five types of power, however, the leader alone is most likely to possess legitimate power.

Expert Power

Expert power comes from a group member’s specific knowledge, skill, or expertise, while others do not. For example, even though all the Social Media Relations Department workers have computer experience, the information technology (IT) officer has expert computer networking and programming power. Because of this, even though the director may have a higher status, they must defer to the IT officer when the office network crashes. A leader with legitimate and expert power may be able to take a central role in setting the group’s direction, contributing to problem-solving, and helping the group achieve its goal. A member with significant expert power may emerge as an unofficial secondary leader in groups with a designated leader who relies primarily on legitimate power.

Referent Power

Referent power comes from the group member’s attractiveness, likeability, and charisma. As we learned earlier, more physically attractive and outgoing people are often chosen as leaders. This could be due to their referent power. Referent power also derives from a person’s reputation. A group member may have referent power if they are well respected outside of the group for previous accomplishments or even because he or she is known as a dependable and capable group member. Like legitimate power, the fact that a person possesses referent power does not mean they have the talent, skill, or other characteristics needed to lead the group. A person could be likable without relevant knowledge about the group’s task or leadership experience. Some groups desire this type of leader, mainly if the person is meant to attract external attention and serve as more of a “figurehead” than a regularly functioning group member.

Information Power

Information power comes from a person’s ability to access information through informal and well-established social and professional networks. We have already learned that information networks are an essential part of a group’s structure and can affect a group’s access to various resources. When a group member is said to have “know-how,” they possess information power. The knowledge may not always be official, but it helps the group solve problems and get things done. Individuals develop information power through years of interaction, making connections, and building and maintaining interpersonal and instrumental relationships.

Reward and Coercive Power

The final two types of power, reward and coercive, are related. Reward power comes from the ability of a group member to provide a positive incentive as a compliance-gaining strategy, and coercive power comes from the ability of a group member to provide a negative incentive. These two types of power can be difficult for leaders and other group members to manage because their use can lead to interpersonal conflict. Nearly any group member can use reward power if they give another group member positive feedback on an idea, an appreciation card for hard work, or a pat on the back. Because of limited resources, many leaders are frustrated by their inability to give worthwhile tangible rewards to group members, such as prizes, bonuses, or raises. Additionally, reward power may seem corny or paternalistic to some or arouse accusations of favouritism or jealousy among group members who do not receive the award.

Coercive power, since it entails punishment or negative incentives, can lead to interpersonal conflict and a hostile group climate if it is overused or misused. While any leader or group member could threaten others, leaders with legitimate power are typically in the best position to use coercive power. In such cases, coercive power may manifest in loss of pay and privileges, being excluded from the group, or being fired (if the group work is job-related). Leaders have more difficulty using coercive power in many volunteer groups or groups that lack formal rules and procedures since they cannot issue official punishments. Instead, coercive power will likely take the form of interpersonal punishments such as ignoring group members or excluding them from group activities.

The Importance of Being a Follower

As we have mentioned, effective teamwork has many benefits. However, most of the work in teams is done by followers, and thus followership is vital to developing a strong team. According to Howell and Mendez (2008), there are three tips for being an effective follower and thus an effective team member.

Followership as an Active Role

You are encouraged to complement and support the leadership role as a team member and a follower. Followers are highly motivated to engage with their leaders to achieve organizational goals. To strengthen the team in a followership role, you are encouraged to:

• Demonstrate job-related knowledge and competence.
• Build collaborative and supportive relationships with colleagues and the leader.
• Support the leader in front of others.

Followership as an Independent Role

Followership as an independent role reflects a trend for followers to act independently of their leaders as a leader substitute. When leadership substitutes exist, leaders can focus on tasks that often go unattended, such as follower development, advocacy, and obtaining resources. Those who want to lead are well served by first endeavouring to follow. As a leader substitute, you should:

• Influence the leader in a confident and unemotional manner to help the leader avoid costly mistakes.
• Show concern for performance as well as a supportive, friendly atmosphere.

Followership as a Shifting Role

An individual’s role in a team-based structure is often temporal and dependent on the requirements of a particular project or task. The same logic applies to student project teams. For example, leaders can emerge during teamwork rather than have a professor appoint them. You may even be a follower initially and find yourself taking a leadership position later in the project. Therefore, we recommend that you:

• Monitor and interpret the environment to identify needed changes in the team.
• Actively participate in the group’s decision-making while taking responsibility for achieving its goals.
• Challenge the team when necessary and maintain a critical perspective on the group’s decisions.
• Role-model the team member prototype by observing and adhering to the group’s norms.
• Maintain an empathic relationship, with rich communication among teammates.

Watch: Why Good Leaders Make You Feel Safe

As you watch the following video, consider the leadership skills and traits that you possess that make clients feel safe.

Video Transcript (see Appendix B 8.1)

References

Bormann, E. G., &. Bormann, N. C. (1988), Effective small group communication (4th ed.). Burgess.

Cragan, J. F., & Wright, D. W. (1991). Communication in small group discussions: An integrated approach (3rd ed.). West Publishing.

Fiedler, F. E. L(1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. McGraw-Hill.

French, J. R. P., Jr., & Raven, B. l(1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp.150–167). Institute for Social Research.

Hargie, O. (2011). Skilled interpersonal interaction: Research, theory, and practice (5th ed.). Routledge.

House, R. J., & Mitchell, T. R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Journal of Contemporary Business, 3, 81–97.

Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created “social climates.” Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 269–299.

Howell, J. P., & Mendez, M. (2008). Three perspectives on followership. In The art of followership: How great followers create great leaders and organizations (pp. 25–39). Warren Bennis.

Pavitt, C. (1999). Theorizing about the group communication-leadership relationship. In L. R. Frey (Ed.), The handbook of group communication theory and research. SAGE.

Wood, J. T. (1977). Leading in purposive discussions: A study of adaptive behavior. Communication Monographs, 44(2) 152–165.

Media Attributions

Sinek, S. (2014). Why good leaders make you feel safe. [Video]. Ted Talk. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmyZMtPVodo

Attribution Statement

Content adapted, with editorial changes, from:

Clark, A. M., Martins-Crane, L., Zhan, M., & Dellinger, J. T. (2020). Teamwork: An open access practical guide. MAVS Open Press, UTA Libraries. https://uta.pressbooks.pub/teamworkstudent/

Wagner, J. (n.d.). Leadership and influencing change in nursing. University of Regina Press. https://pressbooks.pub/leadershipandinfluencingchangeinnursing/

Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.